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Middle C Play

C, or c, is the third letter in the English and ISO basic Latin alphabets.Its name in English is cee (pronounced / ˈ s iː /), plural cees.
Arrays allow to define type of variables that can hold several data items of the same kind. Similarly structure is another user defined data type available in C that allows to combine data items of different kinds. Structures are used to represent a record. Suppose you want to keep track of your.

C or Do is the first note of the C majorscale, the third note of the A minor scale (the relative minor of C major), and the fourth note (F, A, B, C) of the Guidonian hand, commonly pitched around 261.63 Hz. The actual frequency has depended on historical pitch standards, and for transposing instruments a distinction is made between written and sounding or concert pitch.

C# (pronounced see sharp, like the musical note C♯, but written with the number sign) is a general-purpose, multi-paradigm programming language encompassing static typing, strong typing, lexically scoped, imperative, declarative, functional, generic, object-oriented (class-based), and component-oriented programming disciplines.

In English the term Do is used interchangeably with C only by adherents of fixed-Do solfège; in the movable Do system Do refers to the tonic of the prevailing key.

Frequency[edit]

Historically, concert pitch has varied. For an instrument in equal temperament tuned to the A440 pitch standard widely adopted in 1939, middle C has a frequency around 261.63 Hz (for other notes see piano key frequencies). Scientific pitch was originally proposed in 1713 by French physicist Joseph Sauveur and based on the numerically convenient frequency of 256 Hz for middle C, all C's being powers of two. After the A440 pitch standard was adopted by musicians, the Acoustical Society of America published new frequency tables for scientific use. A movement to restore the older A435 standard has used the banners 'Verdi tuning', 'philosophical pitch' or the easily confused scientific pitch.

Octave nomenclature[edit]

Middle C[edit]

Middle C (the fourth C key from left on a standard 88-key piano keyboard) is designated C₄ in scientific pitch notation, and c′ in Helmholtz pitch notation; it is note number 60 in MIDI notation.^[1]

While the expression Middle C is generally clear across instruments and clefs, some musicians naturally use the term to refer to the C note in the middle of their specific instrument's range. C₄ may be called Low C by someone playing a Western concert flute, which has a higher and narrower playing range than the piano, while C₅ (523.251 Hz) would be Middle C. This technically inaccurate practice has led some pedagogues to encourage standardizing on C₄ as the definitive Middle C in instructional materials across all instruments.^[2]

On the Grand Staff, middle-C is notated with a ledger line above the top line of the bass staff or below the bottom line of the treble staff. Alternatively, it is written on the centre line of a staff using the alto clef, or on the fourth line from the bottom, or the second line from the top, of staves using the tenor clef.

Other octaves[edit]

In vocal music, the term High C (sometimes less ambiguously called Top C^[3]) can refer to either the soprano's C₆ (1046.502 Hz; c′′′ in Helmholtz notation) or the tenor's C₅; both are written as the C two ledger lines above the treble clef but the tenor voice sings an octave lower. The term Low C is sometimes used in vocal music to refer to C₂ because this is considered the divide between true basses and bass-baritones: a basso can sing this note easily, whereas other male voices, including bass-baritones, typically cannot.

Tenor C is an organ builder's term for small C or C₃ (130.813 Hz), the note one octave below Middle C. In stoplists it usually means that a rank is not full compass, omitting the bottom octave.

Designation by octave[edit]

Scientific designation	Helmholtz designation	Octave name	Frequency (Hz)	Other names	Audio
C₋₁	C͵͵͵ or ͵͵͵C or CCCC	Octocontra	8.176	Play
C₀	C͵͵ or ͵͵C or CCC	Subcontra	16.352	Play
C₁	C͵ or ͵C or CC	Contra	32.703	Play
C₂	C	Great	65.406	Low C, cello C, 8' C (see organ pipe length)	Play
C₃	c	Small	130.813	4' C or tenor C (organ), viola C	Play
C₄	c′	One-lined	261.626	Middle C	Play
C₅	c′′	Two-lined	523.251	Treble C, high C (written an octave higher for tenor voices)^[4]	Play
C₆	c′′′	Three-lined	1046.502	High C (soprano)	Play
C₇	c′′′′	Four-lined	2093.005	Double high C^{[citation needed]}	Play
C₈	c′′′′′	Five-lined	4186.009	Eighth octave C, triple high C	Play
C₉	c′′′′′′	Six-lined	8372.018	Quadruple high C	Play
C₁₀	c′′′′′′′	Seven-lined	16744.036	Quintuple high C	Play

Note that for a classical piano and musical theory, the middle C is usually labelled as C₄; However, in the MIDI standard definition (like the one used in Apple's GarageBand), this middle C (261.626 Hz) is labelled C₃. In practice, a MIDI software can label middle C (261.626 Hz) as C₃-C₅, which can cause confusion, especially for beginners.

Graphic presentation[edit]

Middle C in four clefs

Position of Middle C on a standard 88-key keyboard

Scales[edit]

Common scales beginning on C[edit]

C Major: C D E F G A B C
C Natural Minor: C D E♭ F G A♭ B♭ C
C Harmonic Minor: C D E♭ F G A♭ B C
C Melodic Minor Ascending: C D E♭ F G A B C
C Melodic Minor Descending: C B♭ A♭ G F E♭ D C

Diatonic scales[edit]

C Ionian: C D E F G A B C
C Dorian: C D E♭ F G A B♭ C
C Phrygian: C D♭ E♭ F G A♭ B♭ C
C Lydian: C D E F♯ G A B C
C Mixolydian: C D E F G A B♭ C
C Aeolian: C D E♭ F G A♭ B♭ C
C Locrian: C D♭ E♭ F G♭ A♭ B♭ C

Jazz melodic minor[edit]

C Ascending Melodic Minor: C D E♭ F G A B C
C Dorian ♭2: C D♭ E♭ F G A B♭ C
C Lydian Augmented: C D E F♯ G♯ A B C
C Lydian Dominant: C D E F♯ G A B♭ C
C Mixolydian ♭6: C D E F G A♭ B♭ C
C Locrian ♮2: C D E♭ F G♭ A♭ B♭ C
C Altered: C D♭ E♭ F♭ G♭ A♭ B♭ C

References[edit]

^'MIDI Note/Key Number Chart', computermusicresource.com
^Large, John (February 1981). 'Theory in Practice: Building a Firm Foundation'. Music Educators Journal. 32: 30–35.
^Harold C. Schonberg (November 4, 1979). 'Birgit Nilsson – The Return of a Super-Soprano'. The New York Times.
^'The Note That Makes Us Weep' by Daniel J. Wakin, The New York Times, September 9, 2007

Retrieved from 'https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=C_(musical_note)&oldid=1003255847'

The null coalescing operator (called the Logical Defined-Or operator in Perl) is a binary operator that is part of the syntax for a basic conditional expression in several programming languages, including C#,^[1]PowerShell as of version 7.0.0,^[2]Perl as of version 5.10,^[3]Swift,^[4] and PHP 7.0.0.^[5] While its behavior differs between implementations, the null coalescing operator generally returns the result of its left-most operand if it exists and is not null, and otherwise returns the right-most operand. This behavior allows a default value to be defined for cases where a more specific value is not available.

In contrast to the ternary conditional if operator used as x ? x : y, but like the binary Elvis operator used as x ?: y, the null coalescing operator is a binary operator and thus evaluates its operands at most once, which is significant if the evaluation of x has side-effects.

Examples by languages[edit]

Bash[edit]

In Bash 'If parameter is unset or null, the expansion of word is substituted. Otherwise, the value of parameter is substituted':^[6]

C#[edit]

In C#, the null coalescing operator is ??.

It is most often used to simplify expressions as follows:

For example, if one wishes to implement some C# code to give a page a default title if none is present, one may use the following statement:

instead of the more verbose

The three forms result in the same value being stored into the variable named pageTitle.

Note that suppliedTitle is referenced only once when using the ?? operator, and twice in the other two code examples.

The operator can also be used multiple times in the same expression:

Once a non-null value is assigned to number, or it reaches the final value (which may or may not be null), the expression is completed.

If, for example, a variable should be changed to another value if its value evaluates to null, since C# 8.0 the ??= null coalescing assignment operator can be used:

Which is a more concise version of:

In combination with the null-conditional operator?. or the null-conditional element access operator ?[] the null coalescing operator can be used to provide a default value if an object or an object’s member is null. For example the following will return the default title if either the page object is null or page is not null but its Title property is:

CFML[edit]

As of ColdFusion 11,^[7]Railo 4.1,^[8]CFML supports the null coalescing operator as a variation of the ternary operator, ?:. It is functionally and syntactically equivalent to its C# counterpart, above. Example:

Clojure[edit]

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Clojure's or macro can be used similarly, because it returns the first non false value, and nil is considered false in Clojure. The inclusion of false makes it slightly different to traditional Elvis operators.

You can also chain values.

Be careful if you care about distinguishing between false and nil in this case, since or does not.

F#[edit]

The null value is not normally used in F# for values or variables.^[9] However null values can appear for example when F# code is called from C#.

F# does not have a built-in null coalescing operator but one can be defined as required as a custom operator:^[10]

This custom operator can then be applied as per C#'s built-in null coalescing operator:

Freemarker[edit]

Missing values in Apache FreeMarker will normally cause exceptions. However, both missing and null values can be handled, with an optional default value:^[11]

or, to leave the output blank:

Haskell[edit]

Types in Haskell can in general not be null. Representation of computations that may or may not return a meaningful result is represented by the generic Maybe type, defined in the standard library^[12] as

The null coalescing operator replaces null pointers with a default value. The Haskell equivalent is a way of extracting a value from a Maybe by supplying a default value. This is the function fromMaybe.

Some example usage follows.

JavaScript[edit]

JavaScript's nearest operator is ??, the 'nullish coalescing operator,' which was added to the standard in ECMAScript's 11^th edition.^[13] In earlier versions, it could be used via a Babel plugin, and in TypeScript. It evalutes its left-hand operand and, if the result value is not 'nullish' (null or undefined), takes that value as its result; otherwise, it evaluates the right-hand operand and takes the resulting value as its result.

In the following example, a will be assigned the value of b if the value of b is not null or undefined, otherwise it will be assigned 3.

Before the nullish coalescing operator, programmers would use the logical OR operator (||). But where ?? looks specifically for null or undefined, the || operator looks for any falsy value: null, undefined, ', 0, NaN, and of course, false.

In the following example, a will be assigned the value of b if the value of b is truthy, otherwise it will be assigned 3.

Kotlin[edit]

Kotlin uses the ?: operator.^[14] This is an unusual choice of symbol, given that ?: is typically used for the Elvis operator, not null coalescing, but it was inspired by Groovy (programming language) where null is considered false.

Objective-C[edit]

In Obj-C, the nil coalescing operator is ?:. It can be used to provide a default for nil references:

This is the same as writing

Perl[edit]

In Perl (starting with version 5.10), the operator is // and the equivalent Perl code is:

The possibly_null_value is evaluated as null or not-null (in Perl terminology, undefined or defined). On the basis of the evaluation, the expression returns either value_if_null when possibly_null_value is null, or possibly_null_value otherwise. In the absence of side-effects this is similar to the way ternary operators (?: statements) work in languages that support them. The above Perl code is equivalent to the use of the ternary operator below:

This operator's most common usage is to minimize the amount of code used for a simple null check.

Perl additionally has a //= assignment operator, where

is largely equivalent to:

This operator differs from Perl's older || and ||= operators in that it considers definedness, not truth. Thus they behave differently on values that are false but defined, such as 0 or ' (a zero-length string):

PHP[edit]

PHP 7 has introduced^[15] a null-coalescing operator with the ?? syntax. This checks strictly for NULL or a non-existent variable/array index/property. In this respect, it acts similarly to PHP's isset() pseudo-function:

Version 7.4 of PHP will add the Null Coalescing Assignment Operator with the ??= syntax:^[16]

Python[edit]

The or operator provides this functionality.^[17]

Note that the or operator does not return only True or False. Instead, it returns the first operand if the first operand evaluates to true, and it returns the second operand if the first operand evaluates to false.

In this case, the expression x or y returns x if it is True or evaluates to true when converted to boolean. Otherwise, it returns y. For most cases, this will serve for the very same purpose of C#'s null-coalescing operator, but keep in mind:

There was a proposal to add a new operator or operators to handle this differently in Python 3.8, but that proposal has been deferred.^[18]

PowerShell[edit]

The ?? null coalescing operator provides this functionality.^[2]

Rust[edit]

While there's no null in Rust, tagged unions are used for the same purpose. For example, Result<T, E> or Option<T>.

unwrap_or() serves a similar purpose as the null coalescing operator in other languages.

SQL[edit]

In Oracle's PL/SQL, the NVL() function provides the same outcome:

In SQL Server/Transact-SQL there is the ISNULL function that follows the same prototype pattern:

Attention should be taken to not confuse ISNULL with IS NULL – the latter serves to evaluate whether some contents are defined to be NULL or not.

The ANSI SQL-92 standard includes the COALESCE function implemented in Oracle,^[19]SQL Server,^[20]PostgreSQL,^[21]SQLite^[22] and MySQL.^[23] The COALESCE function returns the first argument that is not null. If all terms are null, returns null.

Swift[edit]

In Swift, the nil coalescing operator is ??. It is used to provide a default when unwrapping an optional type:

For example, if one wishes to implement some Swift code to give a page a default title if none is present, one may use the following statement:

instead of the more verbose

VB.NET[edit]

In VB.NET the If^[24] operator/keyword achieves the null coalescing operator effect.

which is a more concise way of using its variation

References[edit]